Training other people is hard. Training yourself — even harder. Motivation is something of a Holy Grail in sport psychology. It is very easy to say that discipline is more important; I have done it myself. But motivation is something we cannot disregard. One of the most powerful modern theories of motivation is Self-Determination Theory, which views the construct not as binary and dichotomous (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation) but as a continuum. We will discuss all of this later in the article, but for now let us see what the study that inspired it is about.
Key points:
1. The meta-analysis under review aims to quantify the relationships between coach autonomy support and a broad spectrum of outcomes related to the experiences of their clients or athletes.
2. Autonomy support is associated with a wide range of positive outcomes, including satisfaction of psychological needs, intrinsic motivation, overall well-being, positive affect, life satisfaction, self-esteem, performance and achievement, effort, and the quality of the athlete-coach relationship.
3. Self-Determination Theory provides some very simple and practical strategies that can facilitate the successful execution of a comprehensive program, ultimately supporting the subjective experience, overall well-being, and intrinsic motivation of the athlete, which can provide a solid foundation for long-term success.
But first — a bit of theory and history
What is Self-Determination Theory?
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a general theory of human motivation that emphasizes the degree to which behavior is relatively autonomous (i.e., the degree to which behavior originates from the self) versus relatively controlled (i.e., the degree to which behavior is subject to pressure or coercion from intrapsychic or interpersonal forces). SDT defines motivation as psychological energy directed toward a specific goal. Many theories of human behavior account for the direction of behavior but do not account for how that behavior is energized. In this way, SDT emphasizes the importance of the quality of motivation in addition to its quantity. It also offers a particularly comprehensive approach to studying health behavior through the conceptualization and measurement of autonomy, perceived competence, relatedness, and the emphasis on the role of social context in supporting or thwarting optimal motivation.
The motivation continuum
Traditionally in motivation theories, a distinction is made between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is characterized by a person performing actions for their own sake, while extrinsic motivation is characterized by performing actions for some separate outcome, whether in the form of material rewards, social recognition, proving something to oneself, or maintaining congruence between values and behavior. Given these definitions, many behaviors — especially those related to health promotion (e.g., dietary changes), disease prevention (e.g., screenings like colonoscopy), and disease management (e.g., medication adherence) — are likely extrinsic in nature.
| External regulation | Introjected regulation | Identified regulation | Integrated regulation |
| I lose weight because I want to win a competition or be liked | I lose weight out of a sense of obligation or duty | I lose weight because it is an important goal for me | I lose weight as part of an overall goal for better health |
It is worth noting that although these are described here as separate, mutually exclusive forms of motivation and self-regulation, it quite often happens — especially in health behavior — that different forms of regulation coexist simultaneously for the same behavior and change over time and across contexts.
For example, someone may exercise because they value their health (identified regulation), but also because as a health behavior researcher they would feel guilty if they did not engage in the behavior they prescribe to patients, clients, or intervention study participants (introjected regulation).
So, we have gone through the theory; now let us see what the study says.
What does the study involve?
The study currently under review is a meta-analysis examining the overall impact of coach autonomy support, which refers to “an assortment of coach- or instructor-led behaviors that together create a climate of support, care, and understanding in the sporting environment.” The researchers attempted to quantify the relationship between coach autonomy support and a broad range of psychological outcomes, additionally exploring possible “moderators” or additional variables that could influence the relationship between coach autonomy support and the outcomes of interest. In brief, the results generally show that coach autonomy support is positively associated with intrinsic motivation, satisfaction of basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness), well-being, and positive functioning of athletes, and negatively associated with athlete distress and need frustration.
Practical application
Ideally, people act with a strong sense of self-determined motivation, meaning they make volitional choices and take volitional actions that are driven by their own desires and ambitions, and truly feel as though they have some degree of control over dictating their own path forward. People are more likely to perceive a high level of self-determination in their choices and actions when they have a sense of relatedness, autonomy, and competence.
We can begin fostering a client’s sense of self-determination before the very first training session. There is abundant evidence (reviewed here) suggesting that establishing a stable and comprehensive goal hierarchy is an extremely effective contributing factor to the client’s sustained success.
If you and your client approach goal-setting together, it opens up numerous opportunities to foster the key elements of Self-Determination Theory.
The theory suggests that people have a natural tendency to strive for self-improvement and self-actualization, and establishing a good superordinate goal at the top of the goal hierarchy can help the client see the clear connection between their goals, values, and ideal Self. The very act of collaborating in the goal-setting process will foster a sense of relatedness, as it ensures that you and your client are aligned and simultaneously pushing in the same direction.
When creating the program, it is important that your client is required to use skills and strategies that are relatively comfortable for them.
A complex program for a beginner client will directly threaten their sense of competence and make the program far less enjoyable (and successful).
The mere presence of a coach will encourage the client to develop new skills and new abilities over time; as long as you are presenting appropriate challenges and explaining how these challenges contribute to their long-term success, you will be fostering a greater sense of intrinsic motivation.
Just as with goal-setting, it is important to solicit feedback from the client during program development and to actually incorporate that feedback to the extent possible. You can also build some autonomy-enhancing opportunities into the program itself. For example, you can build in options where the client determines when to break their diet or eat, when to deload, how to distribute their total training volume throughout the week, which accessory lift to choose, how many sets to perform, or when to terminate a given set.
Instead of a conclusion: What do we do if we train alone?
Obviously, these practical examples are written with the assumption that you are coaching someone else. However, you can incorporate aspects of Self-Determination Theory into the process of training yourself. The self-training scenario implies a significant degree of autonomy, but autonomy alone is not sufficient for fostering a high sense of self-determination.
For example, the freedom to make choices can lead to an unfavorable sense of self-determination when you lack confidence in your ability to make the right choice and execute it effectively. As a result, it is important to seek opportunities to enhance your sense of competence. You can achieve this by attending courses or seminars to solidify your practical skills, consuming more educational materials, or seeking tools or equipment that facilitate the self-training process. You may also strive to use opportunities to enhance your sense of relatedness, since a completely independent fitness journey can potentially lead to an unfavorable sense of purposelessness or isolation. By doing something as simple as finding a training partner, regularly communicating with a peer or group of peers on a similar fitness journey, or joining a supportive online community with shared goals and interests, the self-training process is no longer a completely isolating one, and you have a support network to reinforce your sense of relatedness.
References
- Mossman, L. H., Slemp, G. R., Lewis, K. J., Colla, R. H., & O’Halloran, P. (2022). Autonomy support in sport and exercise settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1-24.
- Patrick, H., Williams, G.C. Self-determination theory: its application to health behavior and complementarity with motivational interviewing. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 9, 18 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-18